The Five Generations of Computers

Introduction

The first electronic computer was designed and built at the University of Pennsylvania based on the vacuum tube technology. Vacuum tubes were used to perform logic operations and to store data. Generation of computers has been divided into five according to the technology used to facilitate the processor memory, input/output units. Listed below are the various computer generation in the year of production.

First Generation (1945 - 1956)

A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

First Generation Computers

ENIAC – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

EDSAC – Electronic Daily Storage Automatic Calculator

EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer

Characteristics

Vacuum tubes were used

Very bulky

Consumed more power and limited performance

High cost

Used assembly language to prepare programs.

Mercury delay line memories and electronic memories were used

Fixed point arithmetic was used.

Second Generation Computers

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Characteristics

Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes

Smaller in size

Lesser power consumption and better performance

Lower cost

Magnetic ferrite core memory used as main memories which is a random access non volatile memory

Magnetic tape and magnetic disc were used as secondary memories

Hardware for floating point arithmetic operations were developed

Index registers were introduced which increased flexibility of programming

Separate Input/output processes were developed that could operate parallel with CPU

Third Generation Computers

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Characteristics

Integrated circuits were used

Small scale integration and medium scale integration technology was implemented in CPU

Small and better performance

Comparatively lesser cost

Faster processors

In the beginning magnetic core memories were used

Operating systems software were used

Fourth Generation Computers

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Characteristics

(Intel 8086, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Motorola 68000, 68030, 68040, Apple II etc)

Microprocessors were introduced as CPUs

Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip

CRT screens, laser and inkjet printers, scanners etc were developed

Secondary memory were composed of hard discs

Floppy disk and magnetic tapes were used for backup memories

LAN and WAN were developed where desktop workstations interconnect

Graphic user interface was introduced

Less power consumption, high performance, lower cost

Much increase in speed of operation

Introduced C Language and UNIX Operation System

Fifth Generation Computers

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Characteristics

(IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs: Pentium I, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual core/Quad Core, Sunwork Stations, origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM SP/)

Computers used extensive parallel processing, multiple pipelines, multiple processors etc.

Massive parallel machines and extensively distributed systems connected by communication network fall in this category

Introduced ultra large scale integration technology, Intel Pentium microprocessor contains 55million transistors of components on a single chip, memory chip up to 1GB, hard disc drive up to 180GB and optical disc up to 27GB were available. Object oriented language like Java Script suitable for internet programming was developed. Introduced the World Wide Web.

Conversations and the Interpretation of Mysteries and Traditions in a Cameroon Village

TABENKEN VILLAGE AND THE SUB CHIEFDOM (BIYABI WARD) IN TFUM TABENKEN, OF DONGA MANTUNG DIVISION, NWR CAMEROON IN PICTURES

New Market stall under construction in Tabenken

Sub Palace Tfum, Tabenken Village

Mfuh Lodge at Tfum, Tabenken

Where the sub chief (Tar Biyabi) sits on special occasions

                                                                An Idol in the inner court

Grass house behind the Biyabi Sub Palace in Tabenken

In the Inner Court of the Sub Palace

TAR BIYABI

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Exciting Job opportunity for nurses and midwives

The uk has created an exciting opportunity for nurses and midwives who
were trained outside the EU and wish to seek employment in the UK.
http://www.nmc-uk.org/Registration/Joining-the-register/Trained-outside-the-EU--EEA/
See link above. The scheme has just started this Oct 2014. Basically
you sit a competency in your country. We are fortunate to have a test
centre in Douala. If you pass the test, you can then apply for a visa
through Northampton university. You will have to take a final test
here
Please circulate to friends and relatives who may be interested.
Here is another link which gives more details
http://www.nmc-uk.org/Documents/Registration/Registering%20as%20a%20nurse%20or%20midwife%20from%20outside%20EU%20or%20EEA.pdf

Tennessee School District Fires Computer Tech Over Improper Use of 3D Printer

3D Printing can be valuable in class room situations

As the 3D printing industry continues to grow, so will its user base.  Just like in any other industry with consumer applications, 3D printing can be used for good or for… well, less good.
3d-Printing-EDU-Infographic
3D Printing can be valuable in classroom situations
As many schools around the country have shown recently, 3D printers have amazing potential for students and teachers alike.  The learning applications are almost endless, and students as young as  elementary age are gaining access to cutting-edge technologies that will keep them at the forefront of their age group.  As with any technology in use around students, careful monitoring of both technical operation and the ultimate applications (and objects printed) is always necessary…
Sometimes, though, it’s the adults who can’t resist temptation.
Tuckers Crossroads School has its own 3D printer, which a teacher at the school won at a conference earlier in the school year.  The school, in the Wilson County School District in Tennessee, had to let one of its employees go this week due to misuse of school property.
Sometime in the last month, computer technician Michael Hughes — who had been with Wilson County Schools for about six years — used the school’s 3D printer to create an inoperable part of a paintball gun.Michael Hughes
It fell to Deputy Director of Schools Mickey Hall to discipline Hughes.  The two met on the afternoon of Friday, October 10, to discuss the incident; Hughes received a letter of termination on Monday, following the meeting.  Hall had been informed of the incident by Hughes’ supervisor, who had received information from within the department. The Friday meeting was a follow-up to the completed incident investigation.
    “It was an unfortunate situation and an unfortunate lapse in judgment we had to deal with,” Hall said. “We took appropriate action under the circumstances.”
Using school property to create parts, whether operable or not, for a weapon — even a paintball gun, which typically is used for innocent sport and recreation — demonstrated ethics not in keeping with the school district’s zero-tolerance policy.
    “We just can’t tolerate that type of behavior based on what the equipment was used for.”
Hughes’ dismissal signals a key moment in the widening consumer availability of 3D printing.  While news of 3D printed guns continues to emerge, this is one of the earliest incidents relating directly to a school.  Zero-tolerance policies aren’t new, but their umbrella will continue to stretch out as lists of contraband items expand to encompass items that can be created on 3D printers.
A paintball gun with 3D printed components
A paintball gun with 3D printed components

A Paintball gun with 3D printed components

These policies are not without their controversy, however; while most people will agree that keeping weapons out of schools is a no brainer, the definition of what constitutes a weapon may be more open to interpretation.  A small sample of responses to Hughes’ termination gathered from the Facebook page of the local news site that reported it, illustrates that many community members think the printing of an inoperable component of a paintball gun was not sufficient cause for dismissal.  Let’s hear your thoughts on this story.  Should Michael Hughes have been terminated?  Discuss in the ‘Tech Fired for Misuse” forum thread on 3DPB.com.

Nsongwa - Bamenda, Cameroon

Celebrating the Life of Tangie Joseph Busong Video Kishe Dance of Tabenken, Donga Mantung Division Of North West Region, Cameroon

Schemes of Work Ordinary Level Computer Science

<iframe src="https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B0SsvkeIjJyEUFR3WVlwc2pXQjg/preview" width="640" height="480"></iframe>

Obama on Ebola

"This is a serious disease, but we can't give in to hysteria or fear," Obama said

Can Ebola-Like Symptoms Get You Kicked Off a Plane?

Memorial Service Held for First U.S. Ebola Victim

Democratic Senate Candidates Back Ebola Travel Ban

President Barack Obama on Saturday urged Americans to remain calm about the Ebola virus that has thus far been diagnosed in three people in the United States and killed one, emphasizing that cautious practices on the part of health authorities as well as aid for the West African countries hardest hit by the disease are the best approaches to preventing it from spreading.

Can Ebola-Like Symptoms Get You Kicked Off a Plane?Memorial Service Held for First U.S. Ebola VictimHow a Friendly Fire Incident Ruined a Soldier's Life NBC NewsRemains Found in Search for Missing UVA Student Hannah Graham NBC NewsChopper Lands for Blood Sample in Ebola Cruise Scare NBC News

“What we’re seeing now is not an ‘outbreak’ or an ‘epidemic’ of Ebola in America,” Obama said in his weekly video address. “This is a serious disease, but we can’t give in to hysteria or fear.”
“We have to keep this in perspective,” Obama continued. “Every year, thousands of Americans die from the flu.” The President also pointed out that five people who contracted Ebola in West Africa had been brought back to the U.S. and treated successfully without infecting others.
The Ebola outbreak has so far killed 4,500 people in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea. Liberian national Thomas Eric Duncan, who was diagnosed with the disease in Dallas after traveling from his home country to the U.S., died of the illness Oct. 8. A pair of American health workers have been diagnosed after coming in contact with Duncan and are being treated for the illness. More than 100 people who have been in contact with Duncan and the two sick nurses are being monitored for symptoms. Ebola has an incubation period of up to 21 days and is only transmitted by direct contact with the bodily fluids of a person who is already showing symptoms of the disease.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, under fire for not adequately instructing medical staff in how to deal with Ebola patients, took steps this week to address those criticisms. Several lawmakers have also criticized Obama’s handling of the crisis directly, with the President announcing Friday the appointment of a so-called “Ebola czar” to manage the country’s response to the virus.
Obama, however, warned against calls by some politicians to halt travel between the U.S. and West Africa. CDC officials and other experts have said cutting off the border would be ineffective because sick passengers can still take connecting flights through third countries, and it would make it harder to know who was entering the country and perform contact tracing if travelers later showed symptoms of the virus.
Obama also argued that stopping travel would halt the flow of health workers to West Africa, where they could help contain the disease. “We can’t just cut ourselves off from West Africa,” Obama said. “Trying to seal off an entire region of the world — if that were even possible — could actually make the situation worse.”

Desiderata

Desiderata

G

o placidly amid the noise and haste, and remember what peace there may be in silence. As far as possible, without surrender be on good terms with all persons. Speak your truth quietly and clearly; and listen to others, even the dull and ignorant; they too have their story. Avoid loud and aggressive persons they are vexations to the spirit. If you compare yourself with others, you may become vain and bitter; for always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself. Enjoy your achievements as well as your plans. Keep interested on your own career, however humble it is a real possession in the changing fortunes of time.

Exercise caution in your business affairs; for the world is full of trickery. But let this not blind you to what virtue there is; many persons strive for high ideals; everywhere life is full of heroism. Be yourself! Especially, do not feign affection. Neither be cynical about love; for in the face of all aridity and disenchantment it is as perennial as the grass. Take kindly the counsel of the years, gracefully surrendering the things of youth. Nurture strength of spirit to shield you in sudden misfortune. But do not distress yourself with imaginings. Many fears are born of fatigue and loneliness. Beyond a wholesome discipline; be gentle with yourself. You are a child of the universe, no less than the trees and stars; you have a right to be here.

And whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should. Therefore be at peace with God, whatever you conceive him to be, and whatever your labour and aspirations, in the noisy confusion of life keep peace with your soul. With all its sham, drudgery and broken dreams, it is still a beautiful world. Be cheerful!

Strive to be happy!

Found in Old Saint Paul’s Church

Baltimore dated, 1692.

Computer Studies for Secondary Schools and Universities in Cameroon

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