Intellectual Development
In school we spend
a great deal of our time teaching the child facts, which he has to remember,
but a truly educated person should think for himself.
Encourage
each child in your class to think. Do not always tell the child the answers to
questions; ask him to find the answer by reading books or by making
experiments. After the child has put some effort and thought into the question,
ask him to tell you what he has discovered and then give him further help. For
example, if you want the child to learn that two threes make six, instead of
telling him, ‘Two threes are six’, give him some stones and ask him to count
out of six of them. ‘how many groups of three have you?’ ‘Two groups of three.’
‘Good.’ ‘How many stones altogether?’ ‘Six’. ‘Two groups of three make six.’
Having
found the answer by doing and thinking, the child will remember it much better.
What is even more important, he will understand how the answer was obtained. As
another example, to teach how a seed grows let the child plant it in a glass
jar and watch it grow. In this way not only have you taught the facts but the
child has also had to think and observe for himself. If a child wants to know
how far it is from Lagos to Accra and how the two ports trade, show him the
kind of geography book, or reference book, perhaps even an encyclopaedia, which
will help him and let him discover the answer for himself.
Language
is most important for intellectual development. Too often children sit quietly
in class copying exercises, when they should be talking to each other and to
the teacher. Each child should be encouraged to express his thoughts clearly,
and in an interesting manner. Try in each lesson to give all the children
opportunities to think and to express their thoughts in words. This may mean
more preparation for the teacher but it is very important, because each child
should be helped to increase his intellectual capacity.
Physical Development
Physical education
should not end with the Physical Education lesson. The teacher should help the
child’s body to grow strong and healthy. Hygiene and the correct diet are
important. Teach each child to sit and stand properly, as continued bad posture
will retard and spoil good growth. Make sure that the school meals, if these
are provided, are nourishing and prepared under clean conditions.
If
a child has a speech defect or has trouble with his ears or eyes, a good
teacher will help him to get proper treatment. Watch for any illness in the
class, and see that a sick child is given medical attention. The healthy
children must be protected, so a child suffering from an infectious disease
should be prevented from attending school until he is quite better.
Sleep
is most important if the child is to grow well. Far too many children are
unable to do their best work because they are tired; teachers should advise the
children and their parents, so that at night each child has a really good rest
in a well–ventilated room. A teacher who watches all these points will be
helping each child to develop his best physical powers.
Moral Development
Children
have to learn the difference between right and wrong. This is usually taught
through religion, but it should be taught also any time during the school day
when something happens to give the teacher an opportunity to explain what is
right or what is wrong.
Suppose
a child is honest and brings you a school pen he has found in the playground;
praise him and tell the class they must all try to be honest. If a child is
truthful even when it might bring him trouble, praise him for being brave
enough to tell the truth. Tell a child who is weak at spelling or at doing sums
to do his best without copying, for if he copies from the child next to him the
teacher will not be able to tell how much he really knows, and will not be able
to help him properly.
Though
it may be necessary sometimes, try not to draw much attention to the wrong that
children do. Always stress what is good and right. Stories of good men and
women will encourage children to copy such people. Show each child how the
wrong things he does make other people unhappy, while the good he does makes
other people happy. The teacher’s example is most important if children are to
develop well morally. They will notice how the teacher behaves and will imitate
him.
Social Development
Children
must learn to live in harmony with other people. At school a child is a member
of a bigger group than at home. He has to learn to live and work peacefully
with children form other families.
When
a child works in a group he will learn to take his turn and to share books, and
things like paint or clay, with other children. If a child is in a team the
teacher can let the team compete to collect the most marks, and each child will
learn that if he does well the whole team will benefit, but if he does bad work
the whole team will suffer and will lose marks. Encourage each child to
consider and help others who are weaker than himself. Sick children can be sent
cheerful letters, lame children can be treated kindly and small children can be
taken safely home.
The
social development of the child is most important, as it will help him to play
his part as a good citizen of his country.
Emotional Development
Children
must learn to control their anger if something does not please them. A child
must try to be brave and not be fearful unnecessarily; he must learn to love
and to be kind instead of hating or hurting others.
The
teacher should help each child to use his emotions in the right way. He can be
angry about evil things such as ignorance and injustice, and try to put these
things right. Encourage the child to be brave, but help him to realize there
are some things it is right to fear. He should fear playing with fire, for he
may get burned, fear crossing the road without looking first, as he may get
hurt; and fear making others unhappy through selfishness.
A
child needs an outlet for his emotions, and plenty of hard work and creative
work will help him to keep them under control. Let him express good emotions
like love, by giving him opportunities to help other people. By imitating the
good teacher a child will greatly helped in his emotional development.
We
must remember that the child should be the centre of all educational aims, and
all we do will be to help him to develop to the best of his ability. Good
examination results do not necessarily proclaim a well–educated person, whereas
a conscientious worker, an honest thoughtful citizen, a helpful neighbor, an
upright, kind husband or wife and a sensible parent do show that a man or woman
is well educated.
The School
What is a school?
First a piece of land and a
building must be acquired; it is often necessary to erect a suitable building.
Then the building has to be furnished and equipped. Before the children can be
taught in the school, suitable teachers led by a headteacher must be appointed.
The teachers must have the knowledge and ability to teach, and the head must be
able to help and direct them. Finally, though it may seem obvious, there can be
no school without children. The children are the most important part of the
school, and for them everything should be planted. We shall consider, in turn,
all the factors that make a school.
It
is realized, of course, that many teachers who read this book may have little
personal say in the site for a school or in the school building itself, though
they should certainly have some say regarding equipment. The suggestions are
included however in the hope that teachers will always use their influence with
school authorities in order that the children can be taught under the best
conditions.
The Compound for the School
A dry compound on
slightly high ground should be chosen, because during the rainy season water
will drain fairly quickly from high land, while it will remain longer on low
land, thus making the group damp and swampy. The compound should not be near a
market, a railway station or any other noisy place. If possible it should not
be on a main road, because the traffic will be disturbing, and during the dry
season the cars and lorries driving past will make the school dusty. The site
should be a reasonable walking distance from the homes of the children. Infant
children particularly should not have to walk far to school, or they will be
tired before they start their work. If possible pipes should be laid to bring water
from the town supply; but if not, a good well should be dug, so that the
children will have easy access to water. Hygiene cannot be taught without a
reasonable supply of water.
The
compound should be big enough to provide space for the following:
a)
The school building;
b)
A large field for Physical Education and games;
c)
Garden and flower beds;
d)
A school farm;
e)
A rough space for digging and making models;
f)
Space for future building if the numbers in the
school increase, as they probably will when more and more children desire to be
educated.
When the
compound is cleared a number of shady trees should be left, or new ones
planted, so that the children may sit under them during outdoor lessons. The
trees should not be too near the school or they may make the classrooms dark.
The Building
Single storey
schools are best for young children, as stairs may cause accidents. Each room
should be big enough for the children to sit at desks when necessary, and yet
leave a good space between desks, so that the teacher can easily reach each
child to give individual help. There should be sufficient room for the
arrangement of groups and for dramatics. The headteacher should have a separate
room, where he can receive parents and visitors, and where he can keep his
records and accounts. The teachers should have a staff room where they can sit
at recess and lunch–time. A store room is necessary for keeping books,
apparatus and extra equipment. There should be a latrine for every twenty five
or thirty children, and two for the staff.
A Suggested Plan for a Primary School building
If there is not enough money to
build a hall, it can be left until later. Instead of a wall between classes 5
and 6 there can be a movable partition, which must, however, fit firmly, so
that talking in one room cannot be heard in the next. If necessary, the two
rooms can be cleared and used as a hall. All the floors should be concreted, so
that they can easily be kept clean, and also to prevent white ants getting into
the building. The walls should be colourwashed and kept in good repair. Round
the walls there should be a number of wooden rails, so that pictures and charts
can easily be hung up for the children to see; these rails should be at the children’s
eye level. The shutters for the windows must hook on the outside walls when
they are open, and strong bolts should be fitted to lock them at night. Each
classroom should have a ceiling, to prevent noise travelling from one class to
the next. If possible the outside woodwork should be painted; this looks more
attractive and will preserve the wood.
This
plan is simple, and should be fairly cool while providing plenty of light in
the rooms. In the morning the sun will not shine into the classrooms to dazzle
the children. When the sun reaches the south it will be high in the sky and
will shine on the roof but not through the windows; a good ceiling will help to
keep the classrooms cool. The windows should be as big as possible. An
overhanging roof will help to keep the rooms cool in the hot season and will
help to prevent the rain blowing in during the rainy season. If the roof is
extended over the verandah it will shelter the children when passing from one
room to the next. A large wall blackboard should be put in each room when the
school is being built.
There
are some new ideas in education and these require a different type of building.
Teachers should study the new ideas carefully before making a decision about
them.
The Integrated Day
The timetable is
not one of lessons but of large blocks of time, for example all one morning may
be given to Maths and Language, and all another morning may be given to
creative activities. All subjects can be studied by different children in the
same class during the morning. The idea is that each child should work at his
own speed and interest. To a child all knowledge is one. It is we adults who
split it up into subjects. For example, a child may be studying “The Market’.
He reads about it, writes about it (factual knowledge and imaginative stories),
learns poems and songs about the market, and draws and paints it. He makes
models (craft); he works out a storekeeper’s bills (Maths); he finds where the
goods come from (Geography and Environmental Studies); he discovers how old it
is, and how the market has changed with the years (History); he asks how the
community uses it and how it can serve the neighbourhood (Civic Studies).
Integrated days mean integrated studies. Learning in all subjects goes on side
by side centred on the theme which the children are studying.
The
Market, Buildings in our town, farms in our area, water, transport, the Post
Office, people who help us, growth, happiness, a local building site, are all
themes withint he children’s experience. The teacher would try to expand this
experience by helping the children to study the part of the theme, which is
most interesting to them. When a child has done some good work he will tell the
other children about it, and the class will discuss together. The children will
help each other to learn. They will learn to cooperate. Sometimes a child will
work alone, sometimes the whole class will work together. Plenty of space and
equipment is needed and this will affect the design of the building.
An Open–Plan School
Because of the
integrated day, some schools are built without definite classrooms, but have
work areas instead: an art and craft area, a language area, a Maths and science
area, an environmental area, a music area, etc. There must be plenty of
apparatus, books and materials. The children can move freely from one area to
another. This means the teachers will probably decide to work together.
Team Teaching
The
teachers will work as a team of two or three. Maybe in some schools all the
teachers will be in the team. A teacher who is specially interested in maths
will help in the maths area not only his own pupils but children from other
classes as well. It is necessary for the teachers to like each other and be
able to work together. One lazy teacher will spoil the team. In this sort of
teaching system walls between the classrooms are unnecessary as the children
should be free to move from one area to another. The school building will have
to be designed in an open-plan way.
These
are very brief descriptions of some new trends in education, and how they may
affect buildings. The ideas may not suit your school, nor your area, but every
teacher should be knowledgeable and able to discuss these ideas with inspectors
and parents.
Equipment for the Classroom
1.
There should be good blackboard space (one wall
blackboard about three metres long, and one blackboard on an easel which can be
moved).
2.
A blackboard ruler, chalks and a duster.
3.
Storage cupboards (as large as possible) with
locks, and boxes with lids and locks for storing books and apparatus.
4.
Movable tables or table desks and chairs with
backs. All these should be light and easily moved. The size depends on the
height of the children, whose feet should touch the floor, but whose legs
should not be cramped.
5.
Slates, chalks and slate-cleaners (for infants)
6.
Tables for models, science displays, etc.
7.
Textbooks and writing material.
8.
Teachers’ table, desk and chair.
9.
Register, diary, record books and timetable.
10.
Art and craft equipment…paint, brushes,
clay-boards, paste, scissors, sewing materials, raffia, cane for baskets (many
of these things can be obtained form bush or scrap materials).
11.
Various types of apparatus, depending on the age
of the children, for Reading, Arithmetic, English, etc.
12.
Cardboard, inks, pens and paints for making
apparatus.
13.
Books for a class library; book–shelves or a
table.
14.
A wastepaper basket.
15.
A basin for clean water for washing.
16.
Container for pure drinking water. Each child
should have his own cup or calabash, as it is not hygienic for children to use
the same cup.
17.
A good clock (this may be shared with other
classes).
18.
Brushes and dusters for cleaning the classroom.
Equipment to be shared by all the Classes
1.
Equipment for games and Physical Education
2.
Musical instruments
3.
A slide projector
4.
A gramophone and a radio
5.
A first aid box
6.
Mats for sitting on the floor.
With a limited amount of money
the most important equipment should of course be bought first.
The School and the Community
(i) The Duty of the School to the Community
1.
To give the children in the community a good
education.
2.
To train the children to be good citizens, so
that the community will benefit in the future.
3.
To have Parent–Teacher meetings, so that the
parents are kept informed of the progress of the children, and if necessary can
be advised how best to care for their children.
4.
To encourage parents and relations to visit the
school, and see the children at their work.
5.
To hold adult classes after school hours, when
illiterate people in the community can be taught to read and write.
6.
To help the people of the community to plan and
build sufficient good schools, and keep them well equipped for the needs of the
children.
7.
To help to improve the standard of health,
farming, housing, etc., through the education of children.
(ii)
The
Duty of the Community to the School
1.
To see that the school is properly equipped, so
that the children can take full advantage of their education.
2.
To cooperate with the teachers for the benefit
of the children, by visiting the school when invited and by showing an interest
in the work of the school.
3.
To try to put into practice any advice the head
teacher o teachers may give for the good of the children.
4.
To see that the children go to school at the
right age, attend punctually, and are neatly dressed.
5.
To see that the school is supplied with the
correct number of good, well qualified teachers.
The Staff
The Head teacher
The headteacher
has a most important job to do, and on his or her ability depends the smooth
running of the school. He or she has a number of responsibilities and we shall
study each in turn.
The Headteacher’s Responsibility to the Children
1.
To make sure that the classrooms, furniture,
compound, teaching equipment and health conditions are suitable and adequate
for the children.
2.
To teach by example good manners, kindness,
punctuality, honesty and rules for health and good citizenship. To know all the
children in the school by name, and to take at least one lesson per week in
each class, so that he or she can judge how the children are progressing.
3.
To see that children are admitted to the school
at the correct age and time in the school year according to the regulations of
the Ministry of Education. To see that the children are placed in the class
most suitable to their age and ability.
4.
If a class teacher is absent, to see that the
children are kept busy and are well supervised. The headteacher should do this
himself or herself as often as possible as two classes suffer if a class
teacher is asked to supervise two classes at the same time.
5.
To make sure that each class teacher helps every
individual child to make reasonable progress, and that no child receives
corporal punishment unless it is justified and the punishment book is signed.
6.
To observe, help, direct and encourage classroom
work and really know what is happening in the school. The headteacher should
hardly ever be found in his or her room, but should be found involved with the
children.
The Headteacher’s Responsibility to the Teachers
1.
To ensure the cooperation of the staff. To hold
regular meetings at which the teachers can discuss their problems and give
suggestions for the smooth running of the school. If possible these suggestions
should be used so that the teachers feel that they are all working together for
the good of the children. The headteacher should make sure that all the
teachers know the rules and aims of the school.
2.
To assist the teachers, giving them the benefit
of his or her knowledge and experience, and so improve the standard of the
school. Inexperienced and untrained teachers should be particularly guided and
helped.
3.
To draw up syllabuses suitable for each class,
using as a guide any syllabus published by the Ministry of Education. To help
the teachers make schemes of work and lesson notes.
4.
To plan the timetable for the whole school, so
that each teacher is guided to divide the time in school reasonably between the
subjects in the syllabus.
5.
To check registers and record books
6.
To see that there is an equal distribution of
class and school duties among the teachers.
The Headteacher’s Responsibility to the Parents
The headteacher should try to get
the cooperation of the parents, so that the school and home will work together
for the good of the children. Her or she should form a Parent–Teacher
Association, arrange for an Open Day occasionally and plan to have one
afternoon per week when parents can come to discuss problems confidentially. (I
shall explain each of these functions and show how they help the parents to
cooperate with the school.).
Parent – Teacher Association
Meetings are held
once or twice a term and all the parents are invited. The parents can bring
their problems and ideas for discussion, and the teachers can help. If they
wish, the parents can see their children’s work, and discuss the syllabuses.
The
headteacher has a good opportunity for giving the parents a short talk about
the aims and methods of maths or Reading or Science or Hygiene or the needs of
each child physically or socially. If a child is backward because he or she is
always tired in school, or does not get sufficient nourishing food, and,
therefore, has no energy to work, the teachers can encourage parents to correct
these troubles. The teachers can do a great deal to advise the parents but they
must beware of being proud and showing off their knowledge, or the parents may
feel angry or ashamed and may not come to the next meeting. A good friendly
relationship between the school and home will greatly benefit the children.
Open Days
These
are held once, or at the most twice, a year. The school is open all day to the
inspection of the parents and friends of the children. Exercise books, art,
craft and needlework are all on show, and a short concert or demonstration
lessons may be given. By showing the parents what happens in school their
interest will be aroused, and when they find the teachers are real friends and
guides to their children, the school may be sure of the parents’ cooperation.
Visiting the School
Some parents have
special problems that they wish to discuss with the headteacher. If the
headteacher lets the parents know that there is one afternoon each week for
them, they will not come and disturb the school routine at other times. A good
head knows all the children and should be able to advise the parents, but if
the class teacher can help, the head must see that the class is supervised when
the teacher is busy with the parent. It is not good for the child to overhear
such discussions.
The Headteacher’s Responsibility to the Ministry of Education, the
Proprietor and the Managers
1.
To see that the school buildings are kept in
good condition, and that faults are reported so that they can be repaired.
2.
To carry out the policy of the Ministry of
Education, and of the governing organization.
3.
To see the school records and books are properly
kept and checked.
4.
The educational standard of the school, and the
standard of discipline are the responsibility of the headteacher.
The Primary School Teacher
Teachers
should never forget that their work is most important, and the state of the
country in thirty or forty years will largely depend on how well the teachers
of today have performed their duty. A teacher can have a great influence on a
class, not only by what he says but also by his actions. Children notice
everything their teacher does and they copy a great deal of it. It is no good
telling children to speak the truth unless they always hear the teacher
speaking the truth. It is no good telling them to be punctual and tidy unless
the teacher is punctual and tidy himself. Below are listed a number of
qualities which a teacher should have. For simplicity I shall refer to the
teacher as ‘he’, but obviously the qualities apply equally to men and women.
1.
The teacher should be a person worthy copying.
2.
He should be very interested in children, and
should have endless patience with them.
3.
The children should know they can rely on him
and can trust his word. He should never make idle promises or threats.
4.
He should guide the children in a friendly
manner and they should never be afraid to come to him for help.
5.
He must be interested in the things which
interest children, and should listen with understanding to their news.
6.
He should be enthusiastic and active in his
work, so that he can pass on his enthusiasm and interst to the children.
7.
He should have a knowledge of the needs of
children, and of the best ways of teaching children at different stages.
8.
He should have the ability to explain things in
a simple and imaginative manner.
9.
He should be a person who is interested in
increasing his own general knowledge, and he should remember that a teacher
will never know everything about teaching. He should continue to try to improve
his methods by reading, attending vacation courses, and by experimenting.
10. He
should be a happy and lively person whom the children and their parents can
respect.
A good training is very necessary
to help a teacher develop his interest and ability for teaching children. No
one should enter or remain in the teaching profession unless he is determined
to do his best for the children. Incalculable harm can be done by lazy or careless
teachers.
THE CHILD
Because the most
important person in our education system is the child, the teacher, if he is to
do his job efficiently, must understand something about how a child develops.
Psychology is the study of behavior. Child Psychology is the study of the
behavior of children. The psychology of
child development is the study of how children’s behavior develops and
changes. The subject requires much study, and here I can only hope to awaken
your interest so that you will read other books on the subject.
By
a child most people mean a human being who has not yet reached adolescence.
Sometimes; however, adolescence is included in the study of child development.
Approximate age divisions:
Newborn 0 to 4 weeks
Baby 4 weeks to ½ years
Infant ½ years to 7/8 years
Middle childhood 7/8 years to 12/13 years
Adolescence 12/13 years to 16/18 years
Development
By development we
mean a change towards something that is better, more mature and independent,
more complex. Usually people develop as they grow older. (But we do not talk of
development when illness or old age bring decline.) The word develop also means
‘to unfold’. It is the process of unfolding the inborn capacities, which are
present in the newborn baby, but which need the correct environment for proper
growth.
But
development may be halted or seem to go backwards (called regression) due to
illness or emotional upset. Here are some examples of regression. A boy who has
been ill in bed for a long time forgets how to walk; because he has been unable
to practice the skill, he needs to be taught how to walk again. A mother dies
and her little daughter, who has been running about and talking, goes back to
the baby stage, crawls and stops talking. (She needs a substitute mother to
love and care for her and she will start developing again.) The parents of a
little boy have a big quarrel and their child is very upset. He could read and
write, but now he begins to hesitate and make mistakes. (Until there is harmony
again in the home, he will be troubled.) When studying development, remember t
hat most children progress fairly steadily, and those who do not, need special
help.
Why a knowledge of Child Development Helps the Teacher
Development
and growth are often described as happening at a certain age. This only for
convenience and age is merely a rough guide. For example, most children start
to say a few words by the time they are two years old, but some may start to
talk at 12 months, and some not until they are about three. Yet all may be
quite normal children.
It
is more helpful to consider stages of development. A child must be helped to
pass through each stage successfully, before he can do well at the next stage.
So, if you try to teach a baby to run before he can walk, you are wasting your
time and harming the baby. This seems obvious, but when teaching, stages may be
missed unless the teacher is careful. A child needs plenty of practice with
matching and grouping before he starts simple addition. He must be successful
in all the pre–reading stages before he can confidently tackle a reading book. The
steps between the stages are small and a good teacher makes them so small that
a child does not notice them, but feels happy and successful in his work.
A
good teacher should know the normal stages of development to be expected from
children in his class, but he should also know what happens before and after
those stages. Help the child according
to the stage he has reached, not according to his age.
The
more we study children, the more we can help them. Education is a two–way
business. The children learn from us but we also learn from the children.
The Development of the Junior School Child
A
child does not suddenly change from an infant into a junior. It is a gradual
development and some children are slower than others. For the first two or
three years the junior school teacher needs a good understanding of the younger
child, because the young junior needs to be treated and taught in a similar way
to the infant.
The
junior child has good physical control, and enjoys practicing skills, sometimes
of the most intricate movements. He can sit and concentrate for quite a long
time if he is interested, but he still needs plenty of change and variety in
his lessons. His hand and eye coordination is good, and his writing, painting,
modeling, etc., should show satisfactory progress, as he becomes neater and
attends more to detail. When reading he can see smaller print than the infant.
Socially
the junior is ready to cooperate, take his turn and work in groups. His peers
(children of his own age group) are very important and he will work hard for
their respect and friendship. Adults are less important, but if he likes
someone he will try to imitate that person. The adult may be so admired and
copied, that we call it hero–worship. Teachers must make sure the children have
good heroes to copy.
He
is more stable emotionally than the infant. But he can still be frightened by
an unkind adult, or become nervous in strange situations. He is learning to
control his temper. He is beginning to understand that other people have
feelings, and is ready to give friendship and kindness. The teacher should
build up his courage, confidence and thoughtfulness for others, by praise and
encouragement.
Morally
he has quite a good idea of right and wrong. Sometimes he expects the teacher
to act as judge, so be careful to be fair. He will notice how people behave and
he needs good, honest, truthful adults to copy.
He
will continue to appreciate beautiful displays, pictures, music, etc. it is the
junior teacher’s duty to foster and extend this understanding. Intellectually
the opportunities are enormous for extending the child’s mind. Help him to
learn many interesting facts about the world. His memory is particularly keen
and he likes repetition. It is a good time for learning tables, spelling,
poetry, etc. but remembering without understanding is useless. He will gladly
practice skills such as reading and writing of all kinds, and he needs
step-by-step help. Although he is more ready than the infant to listen to the
teacher talking, the emphasis must still be on doing. The child needs to solve his own problems with practical
apparatus; he needs to experiment and
discover. Most junior teachers talk too much. The child is the one who
needs to develop his use of language. The teacher should use the questioning
technique to encourage the child to think for himself.
The
junior’s interest are wider than those
of the infant. He likes to know what happens in other areas, though
visits in his local environment will provide most teaching topics. Machines and
inventors catch his interest. He will read books of knowledge and adventure.
The classroom still needs to be full of stimulating activities, practical
apparatus, interest tables, displays of work, various kinds of books and
opportunities for the child to use his imagination and creative talents.
How a Child Learns
Reasons for Learning (Motivation)
No child will learn unless he has
a reason for doing so. The most usual reasons are: his own interest and
curiosity; his wish to be like an adult; his wish to succeed; his desire for
praise; his desire to please the teacher or his parents; his fear of failure or
of punishment. A teacher must be very careful that a child does not become too
anxious and fearful, for if this happens his fear prevents him from learning
properly.
Imitation
A child learns a great deal by
copying the example of grown-up people, and in school the teacher must try to
set the child a good example in everything. A child will also imitate his
friends, and the teacher should encourage him to imitate the good and
hard–working children, by praising them.
Listening
A child learns by listening, but
he soon tires of sitting still and just listening. Things which help to make
listening more interesting, like gramophones and the radio, are called aural
aids. (Aural means ‘of the ear’.).
Seeing
A child learns by seeing. Anything
which helps him to learn through his eyes is called a visual aid. Objects,
pictures, charts and diagrams are all visual aids. (visual means ‘of the eye’).
Doing
A child learns by doing. Though
hearing and seeing help the child to learn, he must be active and do things for
himself before he can master a subject. A child cannot concentrate for long if
he is just listening. He can concentrate longer if he listens and watches, but he can concentrate best when he is doing
something himself. A good teacher plans his lessons so that a child spends
only a very short time sitting still and listening. He plans to use visual
aids, but most of the lesson is taken up with the children being active.
Understanding
Without understanding there can
be no proper learning. The teacher must make quite sure that all the children
in the class understand the lesson. Each child should be encouraged and trained
to ask questions when he does not understand. A teacher should never be cross
or laugh at a child who does not honestly follow the lesson, and asks
questions. Asking questions shows an interested, lively mind. All great men and
women have questioning minds.
If
only some of the children have understood a lesson, the teacher can give them a
special activity, while he gives extra help to the others.
Habits
Good habits are very useful, as
they save us a great deal of time and energy. In the first place a child has to
learn a habit, but after it has been thoroughly learned he can do it almost
without thinking.
The
infant takes a long time to write because he has to think carefully how to form
each letter. To write ‘Pius’ the child may think something like this ‘Pius’. It
has a big P. how do I make a big P? a straight line and a curve at the top.
“I”: It has a small straight line with a dot on top. “u”: I must bring my
pencil down, round, up and down again. “s”: It looks like a curly snake.’
Watch
a small child learning to write, and you can imagine him thinking like this as
he slowly writes each letter. Then look at a child in the top class; how
quickly and well he writes if he has been taught properly. He has learned a
good habit of writing, and he can form the letters almost without thinking. Or
watch a little girl learning to knit. How slow she is as she thinks where she
should put her wool, but once she has mastered the skill of knitting and it has
become a habit, she can do it very quickly and almost without thinking.
When
learning to speak the child is very slow, but once the speech habits are
formed, the child can speak quickly and easily. With reading habits the same
thing applies, slow learning at first; then once the skill is mastered, quicker
and quicker reading. Habits may take years to learn and they should be very
carefully taught, so that they will help the child in his education. Bad habits
are a waste of time, and they are very difficult to break or change. Teachers
should watch very carefully that the child is only forming good habits.
Revision and Practice
Repetition (doing an action over
and over again) forms a habit and this is one way of helping a child to learn.
After a child has been taught something which the teacher has helped him to
understand, it should be revised and practiced often, so that the child will
not forget it.
Attention and Inattention
It is important that the child
attends to the lessons. Naturally he will not learn if he is not paying
attention. This is rather a big point, so I emphasize it.
Causes of inattention in class:
1.
Lack of interest.
2.
Lack of materials.
3.
The work is too easy or too hard, and the child
does not attend either because he cannot understand or because he already knows
the work.
4.
Lack of variety.
5.
The teacher does all the talking and the child
has no activity.
6.
The timetable is badly arranged; e.g. two very
difficult lessons are put one after the other, and there are not enough breaks
between lessons.
7.
Bored and uninteresting teacher.
8.
Teacher with weak discipline. One naughty child
influencing others.
9.
Outside distractions (e.g. noise from other
classes, people passing by).
10. Lack
of fresh air, sleep or food. Very hot or very cold weather.
11. Chairs
too big or too little, making children uncomfortable.
12. Illness
Check inattention and help attention by:
1.
Interesting lessons and interesting subject
matter.
2.
Good introduction and sufficient apparatus.
3.
Work suitable for the ability of the children.
(group work and well–prepared schemes).
4.
Plenty of variety.
5.
Children doing most of the talking activity,
helped by the teacher.
6.
Careful planning of the timetable.
7.
Interesting and happy teacher, showing a liking
for the children and the work.
8.
Firm but reasonable discipline depending on the
age of the children.
9.
Letting the children look at whatever is
distracting them, and then calling them back to the lesson (e.g. let the class
look at the people passing by, then say, ‘Now we have seen what is happening,
we must carry on with our lesson’).
10. Adequate
fresh air by keeping windows open. Advise parents about sleep and food.
11. Seats
of the correct size.
12. Help
the sick child to get medical attention.
Memory
Learning depends to a great
extent on memory. When we talk of a child’s memory we mean his power to
remember things. Some children seem to be born with better memories than
others, but the teacher can help the child to remember by attending to all the
points mentioned in this section. ‘How a child learns.
The Child as an Individual
Individual Differences
Although
we have been considering the development of an average child, it is important
to remember that every child differs in some way from every other child in the
class. While one child may find Mathematics easy, another may find it
difficult; one may be very good at Reading, another may be very slow; one may
be very upset by a cross word from the teacher, but another may have to be
spoken to many times before he appears to hear. It is important to remember
that each child in the class is an individual, and needs slightly different
treatment form every other child.
Differences of Environment
Environment means
the type of home and family from which the child comes. A teacher should find
out as much as possible about each child’s environment. One may come form a
rich home, another from a poor home; one may come from a large family, another
from a small family; one may be the youngest child in the family, another the
oldest; one may have sensible parents who listen to advice, another may have
foolish parents who continue to do foolish things (e.g. give the child a poor diet,
refuse to take him to the hospital for treatment when he is ill, do not help
him to practice the laws of hygiene). The following examples will give the
reader some idea of what to observe.
One
child comes from a humble home. The parents are illiterate, and although they
have not much money they are sensible. They ask the teacher for advice about
diet and cleanliness, and they feed their child as well as they can with their
small amount of money. The mother takes her child to market, when she can, so that
he can observe many things. When he asks questions about the things he sees,
she explains as well as possible; she shows her child how to use money and
count his change. She tells her child the house must be kept clean and free
from germs, and the child must help her so that all the family will be healthy.
The father talks to his child. If he hears anything interesting in the town he
tells his child about it. When possible he takes his child out with him to the
post office, the agricultural office or other public place. He takes the child
to the farm not only to work, but also to learn the names of the plants, birds
and insects that they see. In this way the child is learning all the time, he
is getting ideas and his general knowledge is good. In school he is bright and
interested in learning, because his parents have taught him to observe and
think.
Consider
another child from a foolish family; the rich mother is enjoying herself with
her friends, and cannot be bothered to talk and play with her child. In this
family, too, the father is away for weeks and even months, because he is very
busy making money, and he sees his child only very occasionally. The child is
left to the care of a servant, who may be quite good and kind, but a servant
cannot train a child’s mind nor form his character as a parent can. This child
will appear dull in school because he has had no loving parent to awaken his
mind. School training can never take the
place of a good sensible family life, and teachers can only build on the foundations
started at home. If, however, the teacher knows something about the type of
home from which the child comes he can be more understanding towards the child.
Remember that the child is not to blame for the foolishness of his parents, but
as teachers we must help and guide the child and if possible through the Parent
Teacher Association advise and guide the parents as well.
I
have only dealt with this subject very briefly, but the teacher will soon
notice many different types of home environment and note the effect of
environment on the children.
Differences of Ability
Every
child is born with a different ability to learn and reason. We call this
intelligence. If a child is born with a poor brain, nothing can be done to make
it a very good intelligent brain, but the child can be helped to make the very best use of the brain he has. It
is important to remember this.
A
child with a poor intelligence may be doing his best, yet his work may not be
up to the average standard of the class. The teacher must watch carefully and
if the child is working hard he must be praised for trying. The teacher must
help him very slowly, and step by step. A very clever child may find the work
easy, and may not bother to work nearly as hard as the slow child. Often the
bright child is given a great deal of praise when he has made very little
effort. A child like this should be given more difficult work so that he also
has to work hard to get good marks.
In
chapter 1, The Aims of Education, I said we were helping each child develop to the best of his ability. The
clever, the average and the dull child are all part of our society, and all
have an important job to do as citizens of their country. A lazy worker is no
good in any position, and even if a man is very intelligent, he is no use to
the community unless he works. A child with poor intelligence, who has been
trained and helped to develop as well as he can, will find a job where he can
serve his community well, and where people of real understanding will honour
him for his conscientious work.
Physical Differences
It
is easy to pick out the differences in the bodies of the children. Some are
tall, some are short, some are fat, some are thin, some have good eyesight,
some do not see very well and have to wear glasses, some are good at exercises
in P.E., while others find this lesson difficult. Proper diet, rest and care
during illness make a difference to the way a child grows, but children also
take after their parents and grandparents, and if they are all small in stature
we would not expect the child to grow tall, though he should be strong and
healthy.
Moral, Social and Emotional Differences
The
differences between the children’s moral behavior will depend on how they have
been taught at home. The teacher must build on the home training and help each
child to obey the laws of God and of his country.
Some
children naturally like to play with a crowd of their fellows, while some
prefer to be alone. The ones who like to be with others must be encouraged to
be independent sometimes, while the ones who like to be alone must sometimes be
encouraged to take part in group activities.
The
teacher will soon notice the emotional differences between the children. One is
calm and quiet, another is very excitable, another is easily upset and soon
cries, while another loses his temper very quickly. The teacher must remember
that emotions are good if used in a sensible way, and encourage the children to
control them.
In conclusion we should be thankful
that we are not all alike and equal, like beans out of the same pod. Life would
be very uninteresting if we all resembled each other exactly in every way. Each
child and adult with his own special individual differences has a part to play
in the society where he lives. Children have different shapes and sizes
mentally, physically and spiritually, and as teachers we must treat each one as
an individual and help him to develop his own personality.
Children with Special Disabilities
Children
who have special disabilities are those who are blind, deaf, dumb or have very
weak brains. Teachers who teach these children need special training, and the
children should attend special schools. There are few of these special schools
in Africa, but as the educational system grow, more schools will gradually be
built. At present children with these serious defects are probably not sent to
school at all, but the teachers in the ordinary school may get children who are
slightly affected by these disabilities, and he should know how to help them.
Children who cannot See very well
The
teacher can notice eye trouble when a child does very bad writing, or copies
incorrectly from the blackboard. Infant children often write letters
back–to–front or upside down, but that is quite a natural stage in the training
of their hand and eye coordination. If, however, a child continues to have
difficulty writing after two or three years there may be something wrong with
his eyes. Let the child sit in the front desk of the class, and be patient.
There is no treatment the teacher can give. The eyes are very delicate organs
and must be examined by a specialist. The teacher should do all he can to
encourage the parents to take the child to the hospital.
A
great deal can be done for these children nowadays, especially if they are sent
to the hospital while they are quite young. Glasses can be fitted, but remember
that only trained people in hospital can fit the correct glasses. The doctor
can also give special exercises to help the eyes.
Children who cannot Hear very well
It is often more difficult to
notice a child who does not hear very well. Quite often when such a child does
not understand what the teacher is saying, he will just sit quietly and will be
afraid to ask the teacher to explain again. If the teacher discovers there is a
child who frequently misunderstands, or disobeys, the teacher should think
before he gets cross, and consider the possibility that the child is slightly
deaf. Watch the child carefully, and notice if he hears you when he is not
looking at you. If he only hears when he is watching your lips move, he is
probably a little deaf. Again the only help the teacher can give is to be
patient and move him to the front of the class. Encourage the parents to take
him to the hospital, as the earlier the treatment is started the more likely it
is to succeed.
Children who cannot speak very well
Sometimes
the teacher will have a child in the class who cannot speak very well because
of some trouble in the shape of his mouth. The teacher can only be patient and
encourage the parents to take the child to the hospital as soon as possible,
for a small operation may cure the trouble. More often the teacher will have
children in the class who make mistakes in sounding certain letters. Do not
make such a child uncomfortable by criticizing him in front of his friends, but
help him by practicing words with the sounds he finds difficult and correcting
any mistakes quietly.
Another
speech trouble is stuttering. This is when a child tries to say a word and
repeats the first letter over and over again as he tries to say a word.
‘P-p-please may I h-h-h-have a b-b-b-book?’ This is usually due to a kind of
nervousness and the teacher should be very kind and helpful. Try to ignore the
stuttering as much as possible, praise the child when he does any good work and
give him confidence. Try to make him feel a successful and useful member of the
class and the stutter may disappear.
Children who have rather a Weak Brain
These children
need to be treated most kindly and gently. They should be taught in a special
group, and given an earlier stage of work than the rest of the class. They
should be made to feel part of the class, however, by being given easy but
important monitoring jobs, like cleaning the blackboard, watering the flowers or
collecting the pencils. Children who are not clever often copy the work of
brighter children sitting near by, because they are afraid of getting bad
marks. This is not likely to happen if the teacher gives the children simple
work to suit their ability. When they do their best they must be praised and
encouraged, even if the result is not very good.
These
child must be treated with understanding, and helped to realize they are part
of the community, with a special job to do. If they are laughed at or treated
unkindly, they will not understand why. Because their brains are weak, unkind
treatment may even cause them to grow up to be thieves, wanting to hurt the
community as the community has hurt them. The community has a big
responsibility to these people, and those of use with good intelligence must
use it to aid those of our brothers who are weak. The best way to help them is
to see that they have a simple but necessary part to play in the life of the
community.
Backwardness
If a child cannot keep up with
the rest of the class and is always getting poor marks, we say he is backward.
He needs special help and attention, but before the teacher can help him, he
should try to discover the reason for the backwardness.
Reasons for backwardness
1.
Cause: The child may not have a very good brain
and he just cannot do the work of the other children.
How to help: He should be given special work
suitable to his ability. He should be given plenty of praise and encouragement
when he tries, but he should not be expected to do the same work as the other
children.
2.
Cause: The child may have missed a great deal of
school through illness, or because his parents do not send him regularly to
school. If the child has been ill it is no one’s fault, but if absence from
school is the parents’ fault, the teacher should talk to them and show them how
they are preventing their child from learning.
How to help:
These children should be given some extra help, in a group with other backward
children or by themselves, during playtime or when the teacher has some other
spare time. A good headteacher will arrange for these children to have some
special help. Either he will have them in his room and help them himself, or he
will take the class while the teacher gives them special help.
3.
Cause: The child may have missed some schooling
two or three years before and may never have caught up, or he may have had a
lazy teacher, or a teacher who had poor discipline and allowed him to play
about; thus he missed his work and did not attend, so he gradually became more
and more backward.
How to help:
Special help is again necessary, and the teacher should go back and explain the
very simple beginnings which the child never learned. For example if a child
cannot understand sums about metres and centimeters the teacher must go right
back to the beginning and teach the child how to measure and use a ruler. Then
he must explain the first simple sums, and give the child practice until he can
do them. Gradually he will progress to harder sums.
4.
Cause: The child may have a special disability
How to help: He
usually needs special medical care.
A child may be quite good at most
subjects and backward in only one. He then needs help in that one subject. It
is easier to organize the class if all the backward children are put in a
group, but the teacher must be careful he does not make them feel peculiar or
different. Tell them they are in the special group so that they can be helped
to catch up with the others, or because they are being given a little special
work.
